Sponsor
T.M.E. was supported by funding from the American Society of Primatologists, Conservation International’s Primate Action Fund, IDEAWild, the Margot Marsh Biodiversity Fund, the Mohamed bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund (Project 11253008), Primate Conservation Inc., and the Primate Society of Great Britain/Knowsley Safari Park. D.B.A. was supported by the National Science Foundation Doctoral Dissertation Improvement Grants (NSF-DDIG) (BCS 1341174), the Animal Behavior Society, the Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology, the Tinker Foundation, and the Mansfield and Columbus campuses at The Ohio State University. N.A. was supported by Neotropical Primate Conservation through various grants. K.R.A. is supported as a fellow in the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research’s “Humans and the microbiome” program. J.C.B.-M. was supported by funding by the World Wildlife Fund-US (#6573), the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development/Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cietifico e Tecnológico (CNPq) (PQ 1C #304475/2018-1), and Programa Nacional de Pós-Doutorado of the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior–Brazil (Brazilian Higher Education Authority)/Comissao de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nival Superior (CAPES) (Finance Code 001; PNPD Grant 2755/2010). S.A.B. received financial support from the Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project, the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Arizona State University, Fulbright/Institute of International Education, the Margot Marsh Biodiversity Foundation, Providing Educational Opportunities, Primate Conservation Inc., the Organization for Tropical Studies, and the American Society of Primatologists. T.S.C. was supported by a scholarship from Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa (FUNAPE) and would like to thank the Mineração Rio do Norte (MRN) for their support. Ó.M.C. was supported by Programa Nacional de Pós-Doutorado of the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior–Brazil (Brazilian Higher Education Authority)/CAPES (Finance Code 001; PNPD Grant 2755/2010). C.C.-K. received financial support from The NSF (NSF-BSC-1745371), Yale University MacMillan Center for International Studies, the National Geographic Society (EC-420R-18), The Explorers Club, Yale Institute for Biospheric Studies, Yale University Department of Anthropology, The International Primatological Society, and Primate Conservation Inc. Madagascar Ministry of the Environment and Madagascar National Parks permitted this research. I.C.C. received research support from the NSF (Dissertation Improvement Award Grant BNS-9101520), the National Geographic Society (Grant 4496-91), the Boise Fund of the University of Oxford, a Grant-in-Aid of Research from Sigma Xi–The Scientific Research Society, a Washington University Graduate Fellowship, the St. Louis Rainforest Alliance, and the St. Louis Zoo. L.M.F. was supported by Natural Sciences & Engineering Research Council of Canada, and the Canada Research Chairs Programme. A.M.F. was funded by the Wildlife Conservation Society, Conservation International, the Rufford Foundation, and the Primate Society of Great Britain. R.G.F. was supported by the Fundação Grupo Boticario (0973-2013-8) and CNPq. I.F. was supported by a scholarship from FUNAPE and would like to thank the MRN for their support. K.S.H. was supported by the Foundation for Wildlife Conservation, the Zoological Society of Milwaukee, Birds Without Borders, the University of Calgary, Athabasca University, and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. E.W.H. was supported by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD), Universitätsbund Göttingen. S.M.H. was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the Philanthropic Educational Organization, Conservation International, and Primate Conservation Inc. S.E.J. was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, Conservation International, and Primate Conservation Inc. M.C.L. received funding from the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship (Award 1650042), University of California, Davis, Bucknell University, a Greenville Zoo Conservation grant, the Pittsburgh Zoo Conservation and Sustainability Fund, Primate Conservation Inc., an International Primatological Society Research Grant, and IDEAWild. F.R.d.M. was support by a scholarship from FUNAPE and would like to thank the MRN for their support. T.H.M. was funded primarily by The Aspinall Foundation through the “Saving Prolemur simus” project, with additional support from Beauval Nature and International Union for Conservation of Nature-“Save Our Species.” L.S.M. was supported by a scholarship from FUNAPE and would like to thank the MRN for their support. M.T.O. was supported in part by the NSF-DDIG (BCS 0851761), the J. William Fulbright Foundation, Sigma Xi, and the School of Human Evolution and Social Change at Arizona State University. B.P.-G. was supported by grants from the Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Bioversidad (HK009) and Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Technología (CONACYT) (J51278), as well as graduate scholarships from CONACYT (2008–2010 and 2018–2021). G.P.-M. was supported by a doctorate and master’s degree scholarship from CONACYT (2007–2010) and by the Academic Division of Biological Sciences of the Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco. G.P.-M. also thanks the local people from Balancán for their guidance. B.E.R. was supported by funding provided by the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, the Lion Tamarins of Brazil Fund, Margot Marsh Biodiversity Foundation, the Tulsa Zoo, Sigma Xi, and an NSF Research and Training grant to University of Maryland. G.R.-F. was supported by CONACYT Grants J51278, 157656, and CF263958 and by National Geographic Society Grant WW-R008-17. C.J.S. was supported by the Leakey Foundation, NSF-DDIG (BCS-0752683 to C. H. Janson), the National Geographic Society, and the Wenner-Gren Foundation. S.S. was supported by Neotropical Primate Conservation through various grants. P.G.A.d.S.L. received research support from the Fundação Grupo Boticario (0973-2013-8) and CNPq. A.C.S. was supported by Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council Grant 98/S11498. S.E.S.A. was supported by CONACYT through student Grant 207883. Data were collected with the assistance of Augusto Canul, Eulogio Canul, Juan Canul, and Macedonio Canul. J.P.S.-A. was supported by DAAD, CAPES, and International Primatological Society Conservation grants, and currently supported by Fundação de Amparo a Ciência e Tecnologia (BFP-0149-2.05/19). V.K.S. was supported by the Coordination of Improvement of Higher Level Personnel (CAPES). K.J.E.S. was supported by Evangelisches Studienwerk Villigst, Universität Hamburg, and Kompetenzzentrum Nachhaltige Universität, Primate Conservation Inc. (PCI #1542), and the German Academic Exchange Service DAAD. M.P.T. was supported by the American Society of Mammalogists, the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, and IDEAWild. S.V.B. was supported by the National Autonomous University of Mexico (PAPIIT-Project IN200216).
Published In
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
Document Type
Article
Publication Date
10-10-2022
Subjects
Ecology -- Madagascar, Primates -- Behavior -- Madagascar
Abstract
Among mammals, the order Primates is exceptional in having a high taxonomic richness in which the taxa are arboreal, semiterrestrial, or terrestrial. Although habitual terrestriality is pervasive among the apes and African and Asian monkeys (catarrhines), it is largely absent among monkeys of the Americas (platyrrhines), as well as galagos, lemurs, and lorises (strepsirrhines), which are mostly arboreal. Numerous ecological drivers and species-specific factors are suggested to set the conditions for an evolutionary shift from arboreality to terrestriality, and current environmental conditions may provide analogous scenarios to those transitional periods. Therefore, we investigated predominantly arboreal, diurnal primate genera from the Americas and Madagascar that lack fully terrestrial taxa, to determine whether ecological drivers (habitat canopy cover, predation risk, maximum temperature, precipitation, primate species richness, human population density, and distance to roads) or species-specific traits (bodymass, group size, and degree of frugivory) associate with increased terrestriality. We collated 150,961 observation hours across 2,227 months from 47 species at 20 sites in Madagascar and 48 sites in the Americas. Multiple factors were associated with ground use in these otherwise arboreal species, including increased temperature, a decrease in canopy cover, a dietary shift away from frugivory, and larger group size. These factors mostly explain intraspecific differences in terrestriality. As humanity modifies habitats and causes climate change, our results suggest that species already inhabiting hot, sparsely canopied sites, and exhibiting more generalized diets, are more likely to shift toward greater ground use.
Rights
Copyright © 2022 the Author(s). Published by PNAS. This article is distributed under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives License 4.0 (CC BY-NC-ND).
Locate the Document
DOI
10.1073/pnas.2121105119
Persistent Identifier
https://archives.pdx.edu/ds/psu/38862
Citation Details
Eppley, T. M., Hoeks, S., Chapman, C. A., Ganzhorn, J. U., Hall, K., Owen, M. A., ... & Santini, L. (2022). Factors influencing terrestriality in primates of the Americas and Madagascar. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(42), e2121105119.