Published In

Materials (basel, Switzerland)

Document Type

Article

Publication Date

8-24-2025

Subjects

Laser Welding

Abstract

Penetration depth is a critical factor determining joint strength in butt welding; however, it is difficult to monitor in keyhole-mode laser welding due to the dynamic nature of the keyhole. Recently, optical coherence tomography (OCT) has been introduced for real-time keyhole depth measurement, though accurate results require meticulous calibration. In this study, deep learning-based models were developed to estimate penetration depth in laser welding of 780 dual-phase (DP) steel. The models utilized coaxial weld pool images and spectrometer signals as inputs, with OCT signals serving as the output reference. Both uni-sensor models (based on coaxial pool images) and multi-sensor models (incorporating spectrometer data) were developed using transfer learning techniques based on pre-trained convolutional neural network (CNN) architectures including MobileNetV2, ResNet50V2, EfficientNetB3, and Xception. The coefficients of determination values (R) of the uni-sensor CNN transfer learning models without fine-tuning ranged from 0.502 to 0.681, and the mean absolute errors (MAEs) ranged from 0.152 mm to 0.196 mm. In the fine-tuning models, R decreased by more than 17%, and MAE increased by more than 11% compared to the previous models without fine-tuning. In addition, in the multi-sensor model, R ranged from 0.900 to 0.956, and MAE ranged from 0.058 mm to 0.086 mm, showing better performance than uni-sensor CNN transfer learning models. This study demonstrated the potential of using CNN transfer learning models for predicting penetration depth in laser welding of 780DP steel.

Rights

Copyright (c) 2025 The Authors

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

DOI

10.3390/ma18173961

Persistent Identifier

https://archives.pdx.edu/ds/psu/44121

Publisher

MDPI AG

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